Materi 8 : ADJECTIVE & ADVERB

Adjective

Adjective adalah kata yang digunakan untuk menerangkan noun atau pronoun yang dapat berupa orang (person), tempat (place), binatang (animal), benda atau konsep abstrak. Kata sifat bahasa Inggris ini merupakan satu dari delapan part of speech.

Adjective Phrase dan Compound Adjective

Adjective mungkin berbentuk sederhana (dark, hot, young), atau berbentuk frasa. Frasa adjective, disebut adjective phrase, merupakan kombinasi dari adjective sebagai head dan modifier dan/atau determiner.

Contoh Adjective Phrase:

-          very dark chocolate

-          many young married couple

Selain itu, dua adjective mungkin dapat bergabung untuk membentuk kata baru yang disebut compound adjective.

Contoh Compound Adjective:

-          part-time jobs

-          oil-free lotion

Adjective Position

Kata sifat mungkin menempati salah satu posisi:

Attributive: diletakkan di depan noun (beautiful girls)

Postpositive: dibelakang noun tanpa disela linking verb (someone special)

Predicative: diletakkan setelah noun dengan disela linking verb (contoh kalimat: The lady is beautiful)

Adjective Order

Jika ada lebih dari satu adjective di depan noun, kita perlu mengikuti adjective order,  yakni urutan adjective berdasarkan kategori: opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, purpose.

Contoh Adjective Order:

-          two happy small blue birds (opinion – size – color)

Adjective Degree

Untuk menyatakan perbandingan, dapat digunakan adjective dalam bentuk:

a.       positive degree: membandingkan kesetaraan (She is as good as you in math.)

b.      comparative degree: untuk membandingkan dua hal (Today should be better than yesterday.)

c.       superlative degree: untuk membandingkan tiga hal atau lebih (He was the best of all of us.)

Adjective Clause

Adjective Clause merupakan dependent clause yang berfungsi sebagai adjective, untuk menjelaskan noun atau pronoun di dalam complex sentence.

Contoh Kalimat Adjective Clause:

-          The student who always goes to school by bus is my friend.

 Klause ini mungkin direduksi (dipersingkat) — reduced adjective clause — dengan menghilangkan relative pronoun dan mengubah kata kerja yang digunakan menjadi participle.

Contoh Kalimat Reduced Adjective Clause:

-          The student always going to school by bus is my friend.

Macam-Macam Adjective :

1.      Stative dan dynamic adjective: stative mencirikan kondisi yang cenderung permanen (small, black, tall).

Dynamic berhubungan dengan tingkah laku (foolish, friendly, playful).

2.      Inherent dan non-inherent adjective: inherent mencirikan secara langsung noun yang diterangkannya (someone special = special mencirikan someone secara langsung ~ someone who is special).

Non-inherent kebalikannya (my old friend = bukan “my friend who is old”, melainkan old mencirikan friendship yang telah berlangsung lama).

Adverb

Adverb adalah kata yang berfungsi untuk mendeskripsikan verb (kata kerja), adjective (kata sifat), atau adverb lain. Kata keterangan bahasa Inggris ini merupakan satu dari delapan part of speech yang mungkin berbentuk sederhana (fast, there, usually), atau berbentuk frasa (adverb phrase).

Macam, Fungsi, dan Contoh Adverb :

1.      Time (waktu): menyatakan waktu terjadinya suatu kegiatan/peristiwa (now, today, yesterday).

2.      Manner (cara): menyatakan cara suatu kegiatan dilakukan atau peristiwa terjadi (automatically, beautifully, fast).

3.      Degree (derajat): menyatakan sampai seberapa jauh (tingkatan atau derajat) suatu kegiatan/peristiwa (absolutely, barely, really).

4.      Modality (harapan): menyatakan tingkat keyakinan/harapan (likely, maybe, probably).

Frequency (frekuensi): menyatakan seberapa sering suatu kegiatan atau peristiwa dilakukan atau terjadi (always, often, rarely).

5.      Place & Direction (tempat & arah): menyatakan tempat dan arah terjadinya suatu kegiatan/peristiwa (here, in, somewhere).

6.      Purpose: menjawab pertanyaan “why” (for a reason, to buy some clothes).

Focus: menunjukkan bahwa apa yang dibicarakan terbatas pada bagian yang difokuskan (also, just, only).

Contoh Kalimat Adverb:

-          Please call me later, I’m studying now.

-          He is watching the football match there.

Adverb Placement & Order

Adverb Placement: adverb mungkin dapat ditempatkan di awal (Maybe I call her tonight), tengah (They’ve recently went home), atau akhir kalimat (He always drives fast). Jika ada lebih dari satu kata keterangan di dalam suatu kalimat, kita perlu mengikuti aturan adverb order: manner – place – frequency – time – purpose.

Contoh Kalimat Adverb Order:

-          I took the cooking course for three days every week last month.

Adverb Degree

Untuk menyatakan perbandingan, dapat digunakan adverb dalam bentuk:

a.       positive degree: membandingkan kesetaraan (She walks as slowly as a turtle).

b.      comparative degree: untuk membandingkan dua hal (She walks slower than a turtle).

c.       superlative degree: untuk membandingkan tiga hal atau lebih (She runs the most slowest in my class).

Adverbial Clause

Adverbial Clause merupakan dependent clause yang berfungsi sebagai kata keterangan dan memberikan informasi tentang verb, adjective, atau kata keterangan lain pada independent clause di dalam suatu complex sentence.

Contoh Kalimat Adverbial Clause:

-          When he didn’t come last night, he notified by phone.

Mempersingkat adverbial clause (reduced adverbial clause) dapat dilakukan dengan syarat di dalam complex sentence hanya terdapat satu subject.

Contoh Kalimat Reduced Adverbial Clause:

-          When not coming last night, he notified by phone.

Sumber :

http://www.wordsmile.com/pengertian-macam-contoh-kalimat-adjectives

http://www.wordsmile.com/pengertian-macam-contoh-kalimat-adverbs

http://www.1-language.com/englishcoursenew/unit32_grammar.htm

Materi 7 : MODAL AUXILIARIES

What are "modal auxiliary verbs"?

The verbs can, could, will, would, should, may, might, must, ought and shall are verbs which 'help' other verbs to express a meaning: it is important to realise that these "modal verbs" have no meaning by themselves. A modal verb such as would has several varying functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas about the past, the present and the future. It is therefore wrong to simply believe that "would is the past of will": it is many other things.

Bentuk dan Penggunaan Modal Auxiliaries

Modals adalah auxiliary verbs (kata kerja bantu). Secara umum modalauxiliaries digunakan untuk mengekspresikan  sikap atau suasana hati si pembicara. Contohnya, modal auxiliaries dapat mengekspresikan bahwa si pembicara merasakan bahwa sesuatu tersebut merupakannecessary (kebutuhan), advisable (baik untuk dilakukan), permissible(diizinkan/ diperbolehkan), atau possible (mungkin untuk dilakukan).

Bentuk Modal Auxiliaries	Keterangan
Can Could Will Would May Might Must Should Shall Ought to	Modals harus diikuti dengan kata kerja bentuk pertama (VERB 1). Tidak perlu menambahkan akhiran -s/-es walaupun Subject nya: He, She, It Contoh: He can fix this She can fix this. Pengecualian untuk modals: ought to, memang diikuti dengan infinitive “to” kemudian diikuti dengan kata kerja bentuk pertama (VERB 1). Contoh: She ought to go to the market.

Fungsi dan Contoh Modal Auxiliaries

Modal Auxiliaries	Fungsi
Can/ Could (bisa/ dapat)	To ask for permission. Contoh: Can/ Could I use your cell phone? To express polite request. Contoh: Could you get me some water, please? To express ability to do something. Contoh: I can speak English.
Will/ Would (akan)	To express polite request. Contoh: Will you buy me a candy, please? To express intention. Contoh: I will finish my work soon. To express prediction. Contoh: It will rain this afternoon.
Would	To express more polite request Contoh: Would you pass the book, please? To express probability Contoh: That would be his brother in front of my house.
May/ Might (boleh/ mungkin)	To express more formal permission Contoh: May I meet your wife, sir? To express prohibition Contoh: You may not smoke here. To show possibility Contoh: She may join the English Club. To express wish Contoh: May God bless you all the time.
Must/ Have to (harus/ pasti)	To talk about necessity Contoh: I must/ have to buy some foods for breakfast. To express obligation Contoh: They must/ have to obey the medical rules. To express prohibition Contoh: You must not eat in the office. To express conclusion Contoh: Brian got a bad score. He must be a lazy student.
Should(seharusnya)	To express advice or suggestion Contoh: You should go to the doctor.
Shall (akan/ sebaiknya)	To express obligation Contoh: The staff shall give the weather report every day.

CATATAN:

Kita tidak perlu menambahkan do atau don’t ketika menggunakanmodals dalam kalimat tanya dan kalimat negatif, contohnya:

You must not talk in the exam.

Should we submit the task now?

 Sumber :

http://bahasainggrisonlines.blogspot.com/2012/12/modal-auxiliaries.html

http://library.bcu.ac.uk/learner/Grammar%20Guides/3.07%20Modals.htm

Materi 6 : AFFIRMATIVE & NEGATIVE AGREMENT, NEGATION, COMMANDS

A.    Affirmative Agreement

When indicating that one person pr thing does something and then adding that another does the same. Use the word so or too. To avoid needless repetition of words from the affirmative statement, use the conjunction and followed by a simple statement using so or too. The order of this statement will depend on whether so or too is used.

           

1.      When a form of the verb be is used in the main clause, the same tense of the verb be is used in the simple statement that follows.

Pattern :

*Affirmative statement (be) + and + [ S + verb (be) + too]

                                                           [ so + verb (be) + S ]

Example :

I am happy. You are happy

-          I am happy and you are too.

-          I am happy and so are you.

2.      When a compound verb (auxiliary + verb), for example, will go, should do, has done, have written, must examine, etc. occurs in the main clause, the auxiliary of the main verb is used in the simple statement, and the subject and verb must agree.

Pattern :
* Affirmative statement + and + [S+ auxiliary verb only + too]
  (auxiliary verb)                       [So + auxiliary verb only + S]

Example :

They will work in the lab tomorrow. You will work in the lab tomorrow.

 - They will work in the lab tomorrow and you will too

 - They will work in the lab tomorrow and so will you

3.      When any verb except be appears without any auxiliaries in the main clause, the auxiliary do, does, or did is used in simple statement. The subject and verb must agree and the tense must be the same.

Pattern :

*Affirmative statement + and +[ S + (do, does, did) + too]
  (single verb except ”to be”)    [So + (do, does, did) + S]

Example :

We goes to that school. My brother goes to school
- We go to school, and my brother does too.
- We go to school, and so does my brother.

B.     Negative Agreement
Either and Neither function in simple statements much like so and too in affirmative sentences. However, either and neither are used to indicate negative agreement. The same rules for auxiliaries, be and do, does, or did apply.

Pattern :

*Negative statement + and +[S + negative auxiliary or “to be” + either]
                                              [Neither + positive auxiliary or “to be” + S]
Example :
1. I didn’t see Mary this morning. John didn’t see Mary this morning.

  - I didn’t see Mary this morning and John didn’t either

 - I didn’t see Mary this morning and neither did John

              

2. She hasn’t seen the movie yet. I haven’t seen the movie yet.

 - She hasn’t seen the movie yet and I haven’t either

 - She hasn’t seen the movie yet and neither have I

C.     Negation

To make a sentence negative, add the negative particle not after the auxiliary or verb be. If there is no auxiliary or be, add the appropriate form of do, does, or did and place in word not after that.

Example :

John is rich                              John is not rich

Mark has seen Bill                   Mark has not seen Bill

The following examples contain no auxiliary and thus use do, does, or did.

Example :               

Marvin likes spinach   Marvin does not like spinach

They went to class      They did not go to class

D.    Hardly, barely, rarely, seldom, etc.

Remember that in an English sentence it is usually incorrect to have two negatives   together. This is called a double negative and is not acceptable in standard English. The following words have a negative meaning and, thus, must be used with a positive verb.

Pattern :

Hardly                                     almost nothing

Barely              mean                            or

Scarcely                                   almost not at all

Rarely 

Seldom            mean                almost never

Hardly ever

Example :

1.      She scarcely remembers the accident (she almost doesn’t remember the accident).

2.      We seldom see phone of these animals (we almost never see photos of these animals).

E.     Commands

A command is an imperative statement. One person orders another to do something. It can be preceded by please. The understood subject is you. Use the simple form of the

verb.

Example :

Close the door                         leave the room

Please turn off the light          Open your book

*Negative commands: A negative command is formed by adding the word don’t before the verb.

Example :

Don’t close the door

Please don’t turn off the light

Indirect commands: Usually the verbs order, ask, tell, or say are used to indicate an indirect command. They are followed by the infinitive (to + verb).

Example :

Jack asked Jill to turn off the light.

The policeman ordered the suspect to be quite.

*Negative Indirect commands: to make an indirect command negative, add the particle not before the infinitive.

Pattern :

                        Subject + verb + complement + not + (verb in infinitive)

Example :

The teacher told Christopher not to open the window

Please tell Jeime not to leave the room

Sumber :
http://bahasainggrisonandNegativeAgreement013/04/elliptical-constructions.html
http://elsadenovia.blogspot.com/2014/05/affirmative-agreement-and-negative.html

Tugas 2 : MEKANISME PENGAJUAN PENGURANGAN PAJAK

Artikel :

Masing-masing negara yang dikaji memiliki mekanisme yang bervariasi dalam proses pengajuan klaim pengurangan pajak (tax deduction). Namun, ada dua persamaan yang berlaku di hampir semua negara. Negara-negara yang dikaji umumnya memberlakukan bukti tertulis yang diberikan oleh organisasi nirlaba penerima sumbangan sebagai bukti untuk mengajukan klaim pengurangan pajak. Selain itu, klaim pengurangan pajak umumnya dilakukan di akhir tahun pajak.

Di Afrika Selatan, misalnya, penyumbang individu maupun perusahaan yang memberikan sumbangan kepada organisasi nirlaba akan mendapatkan kuitansi tertanggal pemberian sumbangan. Kuitansi ini dianggap sebagai bukti sah yang harus dilampirkan pada saat pengajuan pengurangan pajak. Pengurangan pajak dapat dilakukan dalam bentuk tax rebate yang diperhitungkan di akhir tahun dengan melampirkan kuitansi tertanggal formal yang dikeluarkan oleh lembaga penerima.

Mekanisme yang sama juga berlaku di Banglades dan India. Di Banglades, donatur yang memberikan sumbangan akan mendapatkan kuitansi tertulis dari organisasi penerima. Kuitansi ini nantinya bisa digunakan sebagai lampiran untuk mendapatkan keuntungan pajak dari pemerintah. Sementara ketentuan perpajakan di India menyebutkan bahwa semua sumbangan kepada organisasi nirlaba atau karitas tertentu harus diperinci dan bukti sumbangan (kuitansi atau sertifikat) harus dilampirkan ketika mengajukan pengurangan pajak.

Kesimpulan :

Menurut saya, masing – masing negara sudah mulai memiliki mekanisme pengajuan pengurangan pajak. Dimana, negara – negara tersebut memberlakukan bukti tertulis dan klaim pengurangan pajak yang dilakukan pada akhir tahun.  Berikut pengajuan pengurangan pajak di beberapa negara seperti Banglades, India dan Afrika Selatan sudah berjalan dengan baik. Penyumbang dari kalangan perusahaan dan individu sudah ikut berpartisipasi untuk memberikan sumbangan kepada organisasi dengan mendapatkan kuitansi. Kuitansi tersebut nantinya akan digunakan sebagai lampiran untuk keuntungan pajak dari pemerintah.

Sumber : http://keuanganlsm.com/mekanisme-pengajuan-pengurangan-pajak/